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| [Figure 1: Regions of Canada where the bulk of the Inuit population currently lives.] (Source: statcan.gc.ca) |
To refer to the entirety of Canada’s indigenous population as one would be to grossly oversimplify how complex and diverse the different native groups within are. The Canadian Encyclopedia includes 100+ groups of indigenous peoples in 10 different cultural areas (Parrott). To further specify an area of concentration for this post, I will be focusing on the Inuit, their culture, and the role suicide plays as a modern problem that the group is facing. Please note that this is not representative of all indigenous populations in Canada or the circumpolar region.
The Inuit are believed to be one of the last Native groups to come to North America, coming from east Asia and crossing the Bering land bridge sometime between 6000BC and 2000BC. They occupy the lands from Siberia to Alaska/Canada and Greenland. The primary languages spoken by the Inuit are known as Eskaleut languages (Jones). There are roughly 60,000 Inuit spread across the ~12,000 mile wide territory, making them one of the most dispersed populations in the world. Roughly half of the 60,000 live in Nunavut, the region highlighted in yellow on the map to the right ("Inuit").
Suicide rates among the Inuit are extremely high in relation to their non-native peers. The rate at which Inuit take their own lives is nine times higher than that of the general population of Canada. Young people, especially boys, are at an even greater risk. In fact, young Inuit men have “the highest risk of suicide of any population group in the world” (Eggerston). Inuit males between the ages of 15 and 29 take their own lives at a rate that is 40 times higher than the rate for non-Inuit in the same age group. Residents of Nunavut say that it is heartbreaking to see this issue become so common in their communities -- and that “anywhere else in Canada it would be a national tragedy” (Eggerston).
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| [Figure 2: Annual rate of death by suicide per 100,000 population; Nunavut Inuit vs. Canada] (Source: suicideprevention.ca) |
The high suicide rates of Inuit people, especially young men, is devastating for already struggling communities and has social, economic, and political implications. To try and understand this issue, I read a great deal of literature regarding different aspects of Inuit life and how social change over the past few decades has affected it.
The first thing to consider is the fact that Inuit territory is rich with gold, uranium, iron ore, natural gas, oil, and more. Thus, there is a controversy surrounding the issue of land resource rights (Miller & Rowe, 124). However, colonization and social control often undermined Inuit control over the land and these valuable resources. This is an important issue for the Inuit because of their lack of political voice and representation and the fact that resource extraction operations could result in harm to the wildlife of which they depend upon for subsistence and income.
In addition to being exploited for their land and resources, the Inuit -- like other native groups -- have a long history of being forced into assimilation by their colonizers. One of the main ways that social control was utilized by colonizers was through education. They were forced into schools that forbid the learning of their native languages. Hence, English became the primary language and today many young Inuit have completely lost the connection to their native language and culture (Jones). Another massive change took place when they shifted from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of wage work. Because of this decrease in regular hunting, fewer pelts were being recovered to make boats, traditional clothing, tools, and weapons. This followed with young people not being taught traditional skills associated with creating these items (Chance, 1030-1031). It is clear to see how changes like these could create a large gap between an older, more traditional generation and today’s youth. Some of these changes left children and young adults feeling like they have no connection with their culture or their community. This loss of identity can be traumatizing and make youth feel lost and hopeless -- characteristic feelings of depression and anxiety, which are linked to suicidal tendencies. David Emile Durkheim's model for fatalistic suicide could help explain why this loss of identity and oppressive forces from assimilation would cause one to take their own life.
Further, education is still an issue for many as the dropout rates are extraordinarily high. It is estimated that 50-80% of Inuit that attend high school do not graduate, and a staggering 97% of those that make it to college end up dropping out (Jones). Reasons for this include truancy, law breaking, alcohol and drug abuse, and family violence which are assumed to be a a result of the loss, grief, and anger that many natives experience (Hunter & Darvey, 16).
Additionally, many families in these communities face financial hardship. As a result of their remote location, living in modern homes with running water and electricity is very expensive. One can expect to pay 62% more for groceries and 165% more for electricity. This leaves over a quarter of the population living below the poverty line (Jones). The boom and bust cycles that accompany the mining, natural gas, and oil industries can damage communities that are already struggling economically (Holden). High costs of living, in pair with the fact that so many young people fail to finish high school or obtain a college degree makes it exceedingly difficult for them to escape this cycle of poverty. In addition to lack of education, the destruction of the wildlife that they rely on for income also contributes to this high incidence of poverty.
Another issue that could greatly contribute to suicidal behavior is the prevalence of alcoholism among the Inuit. Due to the alarmingly high number of alcoholics and high occurrence of fetal alcohol syndrome, at least ten villages have reportedly banned the sale of alcohol (Jones). Researchers found that death by suicide is more likely to occur when alcohol use precedes, so the fact that Inuit struggle with high alcoholism rates can be named as a contributor (Hunter & Darvey, 19).
After doing research on several different aspects of this issue, I can't come to a conclusion on any one issue that causes suicide among these people. Instead, the high incidences of suicide and self injury among Inuit boys is “a result of a complex mix of social, cultural, economic, and psychological dislocations” and that the root of these issues lies with colonial relations between European settlers and native peoples and the distortion of their culture and livelihood that resulted from it (Hunter & Darvey, 16). Other interpretations “highlight persistent social disadvantage experienced by indigenous populations in comparison with their respective dominant cultures.” (Hunter & Darvey, 16).
Many solutions to this issue of high suicide rates have been proposed, but few have succeeded in making a solid improvement. For example, Nunavut's Suicide Prevention Strategy Working Group taught suicide intervention skills to caregivers and community members throughout the Inuit territories. The goal was to identify warning signs of suicidal behavior and intervene as much as possible. However, only around 600 people took the class. Nunavut also had an extension on the suicide intervention training - a workshop called “Uqaqatigiiluk!” or “Talk About It!” (Eggerston). This, however, is a very individualistic approach that focuses on personal issues instead of addressing the real root of the problem; the fact that the Inuit community is in a state of Anomie. While things like this could help individuals, the low frequency and intensity with which the government has been offering such training isn’t sufficient to see long term improvements.
A solution that would provide better results would involve improving infrastructure for natives in these impoverished communities. The recognition of “the uniqueness of Inuit communities, their shared history of collective and historical trauma, and the relationship between mental wellness and substance abuse in Inuit communities” is vital to the success of any anti-suicide program (Eggleston). In order to really make a difference, infrastructure needs to be vastly improved and the importance of quality mental health services needs to be emphasized (Eggleston). Infrastructure needs to be
reformed with the goal of reducing people’s risk for suicide by focusing on factors on individual, family, community, and societal levels. This will require a multidisciplinary approach since this issue spreads across many disciplines such as psychology, epidemiology, and sociology, health, media, criminal justice, education and many more. It will require expertise from this wide array of professions because they all can play vital roles in suicide prevention (“Suicide Prevention”). One example of this approach could be in the form of schools, mental health providers, substance abuse treatment providers, local police, and others all being in cooperation and understanding with each other and working together towards a common goal of reducing the number of lives lost to suicide.
The first thing to consider is the fact that Inuit territory is rich with gold, uranium, iron ore, natural gas, oil, and more. Thus, there is a controversy surrounding the issue of land resource rights (Miller & Rowe, 124). However, colonization and social control often undermined Inuit control over the land and these valuable resources. This is an important issue for the Inuit because of their lack of political voice and representation and the fact that resource extraction operations could result in harm to the wildlife of which they depend upon for subsistence and income.
In addition to being exploited for their land and resources, the Inuit -- like other native groups -- have a long history of being forced into assimilation by their colonizers. One of the main ways that social control was utilized by colonizers was through education. They were forced into schools that forbid the learning of their native languages. Hence, English became the primary language and today many young Inuit have completely lost the connection to their native language and culture (Jones). Another massive change took place when they shifted from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of wage work. Because of this decrease in regular hunting, fewer pelts were being recovered to make boats, traditional clothing, tools, and weapons. This followed with young people not being taught traditional skills associated with creating these items (Chance, 1030-1031). It is clear to see how changes like these could create a large gap between an older, more traditional generation and today’s youth. Some of these changes left children and young adults feeling like they have no connection with their culture or their community. This loss of identity can be traumatizing and make youth feel lost and hopeless -- characteristic feelings of depression and anxiety, which are linked to suicidal tendencies. David Emile Durkheim's model for fatalistic suicide could help explain why this loss of identity and oppressive forces from assimilation would cause one to take their own life.
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| [Figure 3: Educational Attainment of Inuit vs. Non-Aboriginal Canadians] (Source: labour.gc.ca) |
Further, education is still an issue for many as the dropout rates are extraordinarily high. It is estimated that 50-80% of Inuit that attend high school do not graduate, and a staggering 97% of those that make it to college end up dropping out (Jones). Reasons for this include truancy, law breaking, alcohol and drug abuse, and family violence which are assumed to be a a result of the loss, grief, and anger that many natives experience (Hunter & Darvey, 16).
Additionally, many families in these communities face financial hardship. As a result of their remote location, living in modern homes with running water and electricity is very expensive. One can expect to pay 62% more for groceries and 165% more for electricity. This leaves over a quarter of the population living below the poverty line (Jones). The boom and bust cycles that accompany the mining, natural gas, and oil industries can damage communities that are already struggling economically (Holden). High costs of living, in pair with the fact that so many young people fail to finish high school or obtain a college degree makes it exceedingly difficult for them to escape this cycle of poverty. In addition to lack of education, the destruction of the wildlife that they rely on for income also contributes to this high incidence of poverty.
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| [Figure 4: Infographic showing child poverty rates by territory in Canada] (Source: policyalternatives.ca) |
Another issue that could greatly contribute to suicidal behavior is the prevalence of alcoholism among the Inuit. Due to the alarmingly high number of alcoholics and high occurrence of fetal alcohol syndrome, at least ten villages have reportedly banned the sale of alcohol (Jones). Researchers found that death by suicide is more likely to occur when alcohol use precedes, so the fact that Inuit struggle with high alcoholism rates can be named as a contributor (Hunter & Darvey, 19).
After doing research on several different aspects of this issue, I can't come to a conclusion on any one issue that causes suicide among these people. Instead, the high incidences of suicide and self injury among Inuit boys is “a result of a complex mix of social, cultural, economic, and psychological dislocations” and that the root of these issues lies with colonial relations between European settlers and native peoples and the distortion of their culture and livelihood that resulted from it (Hunter & Darvey, 16). Other interpretations “highlight persistent social disadvantage experienced by indigenous populations in comparison with their respective dominant cultures.” (Hunter & Darvey, 16).
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| [Figure 5: Terry Audla, president of Inuit Tapiriit Katanami, addressing audience at the 9th annual Celebrate Life event on World Suicide Prevention Day.] (Source: polarhorizons.com) |
Many solutions to this issue of high suicide rates have been proposed, but few have succeeded in making a solid improvement. For example, Nunavut's Suicide Prevention Strategy Working Group taught suicide intervention skills to caregivers and community members throughout the Inuit territories. The goal was to identify warning signs of suicidal behavior and intervene as much as possible. However, only around 600 people took the class. Nunavut also had an extension on the suicide intervention training - a workshop called “Uqaqatigiiluk!” or “Talk About It!” (Eggerston). This, however, is a very individualistic approach that focuses on personal issues instead of addressing the real root of the problem; the fact that the Inuit community is in a state of Anomie. While things like this could help individuals, the low frequency and intensity with which the government has been offering such training isn’t sufficient to see long term improvements.
A solution that would provide better results would involve improving infrastructure for natives in these impoverished communities. The recognition of “the uniqueness of Inuit communities, their shared history of collective and historical trauma, and the relationship between mental wellness and substance abuse in Inuit communities” is vital to the success of any anti-suicide program (Eggleston). In order to really make a difference, infrastructure needs to be vastly improved and the importance of quality mental health services needs to be emphasized (Eggleston). Infrastructure needs to be
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| [Figure 6: Diagram showing all the elements that go into building a healthier community.] (Source: inuitknowledge.ca ) |
REFERENCES
Chance, Norman A. "Culture Change and Integration." American Anthropologist 62.6 (1960): 1028-044. AnthroSource. American Anthropological Association, 28 Oct. 2009. Web. 9 Dec. 2015.
Eggertson, L. "Risk of Suicide 40 times Higher for Inuit Boys." Canadian Medical Association Journal 185.15 (2013): n. pag. Web. 9 Dec. 2015.
Holden, Constance. "Environment, Culture, and Change in the Arctic." American Association for the Advancement of Science 243.4893 (1989): 883. Web. 9 Dec. 2015.
Hunter, Ernest, and Desley Harvey. "Indigenous Suicide in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States." Emerg Med Australas Emergency Medicine Australasia 14.1 (2002): 14-23. Wiley Online Library. Web. 8 Dec. 2015. "Inuit Population." Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami. N.p., 2011. Web. 09 Dec. 2015.
Hunter, Ernest, and Desley Harvey. "Indigenous Suicide in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States." Emerg Med Australas Emergency Medicine Australasia 14.1 (2002): 14-23. Wiley Online Library. Web. 8 Dec. 2015. "Inuit Population." Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami. N.p., 2011. Web. 09 Dec. 2015.
Jones, Sydney J. "Inuit." EveryCulture. N.p., 2015. Web. 09 Dec. 2015.
Miller, Mark M., and James E. Rowe. "Nunavut: A Potential New Model for Economic Development." Australasian Journal of Regional Studies 9.1 (2013): 121-53. Web. 9 Dec. 2015.
Parrott, Zach. "Aboriginal Peoples." The Canadian Encyclopedia. N.p., 17 Mar. 2007. Web. 8 Dec. 2015.
"Suicide Data." WHO. World Health Organization, 2015. Web. 08 Dec. 2015.
"Suicide Prevention: A Public Health Issue." Injury Prevention & Control : Division of Violence Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 9 Feb. 2015. Web. 4 Dec. 2015.
"Suicide Prevention: A Public Health Issue." Injury Prevention & Control : Division of Violence Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 9 Feb. 2015. Web. 4 Dec. 2015.
FIGURE REFERENCES [In order of appearance.]
"Four Regions of Inuit Nunaat." Statistics Canada. StatCan.gc.ca, 12 Feb. 2013. Web. 13 Dec. 2015.
"Nunavut Suicide Prevention Strategy." SuicidePrevention.ca. Government of Nunavut, Oct. 2010. Web. 13 Dec. 2015.
"A Profile of Inuit in Canada." Labour.gc.ca. Government of Canada, 21 Aug. 2013. Web. 13 Dec. 2015.
"Indigenous Children Face Deplorable Poverty." Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. N.p., 2015. Web. 13 Dec. 2015.
"Ottawa’s Inuit Community Celebrates Life." Web log post. Polar Horizons. N.p., 10 Sept. 2015. Web. 13 Dec. 2015.
"Inuit Health and Well-being Data Organization." Inuitknowledge.ca. Іnuit Tapiriit Kanatami, n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2015.
